መጠራ/Matara: The Ancient City That Lasted For Over a Millennium
Situated southwest of present-day Senafe,Eritrea lies an ancient city adorned with palaces, churches, and a resilient community that once clashed with the Aksumite Empire.
Just a few kilometres south of present-day Senafe in Eritrea lies the archaeological site of Matara, nestled between two mountains—Amba Matara and Amba Saim, the latter towering at an impressive 3,000 metres. As one of the region's most ancient urban centres, Matara shows evidence of human habitation dating back to the 8th century BC. Over the centuries, it steadily expanded in size and sophistication, benefiting from its strategic position between the two regional superpowers of its time: Adulis and Aksum. Matara evolved into a large city-state, featuring a unique network of interconnected homes and grand palaces for the local elite. At times, it functioned with a degree of autonomy and, in the later stages of antiquity, when their way of life was threatened by foreign forces & ideologies, it would war with the Aksumite Empire.
Aerial View Of Matara - Colorized Version From Anfray Francis. Maṭarā. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 7, année 1967, Figure 3.
Early Antiquity (~800BC-0AD)
Pottery
Burial Site at Maṭarā, by Francis Anfray in 1967, pg 34
To the south, near Goual Saim (a hill in front of Amba Saim) lie ten burial tombs, ranging from 2 to 4.5 metres in depth. Initially created during early antiquity for funerary purposes, these tombs also served as storage spaces for goods, possibly intended to aid the deceased in the afterlife. They are of particular significance due to the artifacts they contain, including pottery such as vases for cooking & storing food, metal objects such as knives, and incense burners & possibly early forms of a Jebena? Notably, these artifacts date back to early antiquity, spanning from the 5th century BC to the 1st century AD.
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Architectural structures from this era haven't been discovered yet, as only the top layer of Matara has been excavated to date. Artifacts from earlier periods likely remain buried deeper underground and have yet to be uncovered.
Left: Incense Burner, Right: Early Form Of A Jebena?? Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, Figure 32.
A common characteristic of pottery from this early period is the relatively simple artistic patterns found on some vessels.
Vases Dating To Early Antiquity, Fragment Of Patterned Bowl, Early Atniquity Jugs, bronze knife & bronze hand
Sources: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, FIgure 33 & Maṭarā, Francis Anfray, J.E., 3304, 3218, 3220, 3292 & 3294
Inscriptions
Fragment Of Stone From An Incense Burner, Which Has South Arabian Inscriptions Dating To The 8th century BC. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, pg 30
Evidence of early antiquity settlement at Matara is also supported by inscriptions found on both stone and pottery fragments, some dating as far back as the 8th century BCE. These inscriptions contain ‘proto-Sabaic’ and ‘proto-Ethiopic/Ge’ez’ characters. In fact, Matara stands out for having 71 such inscribed pottery fragments.
Some of these fragments with inscriptions were translated by the archaeologist & linguist Bernard, Etienne1. Most of these inscriptions, particularly from the earlier periods, consist of only a few letters, the meaning of what these words represent remains unknown. This early script evolved from a South Arabian form, which is not fully understood, into a proto-Ethiopic form that closely resembles Ge’ez.
Most of these words, afaik do not have any meaning in modern-day Ge’ez/Tigrinya, however, my opinion is they were names of the owners of the pottery works. For example, an inscription on a pottery bowl contained the word “Saba,” which could refer to either the personal name of the owner of the bowl or the location of Saba.
An inscription found on the rim of a red pottery bowl, which reads “saba”. Source: Recueil des inscriptions de l’Ethiopie des périodes pré-axoumite et axoumite, pg 431.
However, alternative interpretations may exist. For example, an inscription found on a red pottery bowl includes the words zasarha/zasarw (as concluded by Anfray2), or it might be zasarta (modern Tigrinya would identify the last letter as “t,” though the lines would be straight for this reading).
An inscription found on a red pottery bowl, with the words zasarha?. Source: Recueil des inscriptions de l’Ethiopie des périodes pré-axoumite et axoumite, page 435
Personally, I believe it refers to ስራሕ (srah), meaning “work” in past tense hence the ዘ (za) beforehand – `zasarha`, so the meaning might be “I worked on this” or “This is my work,” in reference to the creation of the bowl.
During this early period, about which little is known, Matara's inhabitants began laying the foundations of what would later become a powerful city-state. Its central position between the region’s major powers—the port city of Adulis to the south and the city-state of Yeha—played a crucial role in its continued societal and cultural development.
Mid Antiquity (0AD-~400AD)
Kids Playing Near The Hawulti Monument - During WW2. Source
The Hawulti Monument was originally erected atop Goual Saim, a hill facing Amba Saim3. However, at some point, it fell from the hill and was split in half by the time Italian archaeologists discovered it in the late 19th century AD. It was subsequently restored and re-erected southeast of the Matara site. During the Ethiopia-Eritrea war, the monument’s base was completely shattered but it has since been restored.
Goual Saim, where the Hawulti Monument once stood. Source
I believe this was no coincidence. As we will see later, Matara became the target of an Aksumite invasion led by Emperor Kaleb, an event that ultimately led to the region’s conversion to Christianity. This large stela, adorned with symbols of pagan gods, stood in direct opposition to this. It is possible that, as an act of punishment of deliberate erasure, the stela was purposefully toppled from the hill.
Following this early period, Matara reached its peak during the first half of the first millennium AD, as evidenced by a wealth of archaeological findings dating to this era.
During this time, remnants of several dozen adjoining stone houses and large palaces for the local elites have been identified. Matara undoubtedly held a strategic position, benefiting from trade conducted at Adulis, which connected it to global commerce, while also being closely linked to the rising power of Aksum further south. By the early 3rd century AD, The Aksumite Empire had formed and had emerged as the dominant force in the region and one of the strongest empires of its time.
However, as I will explore later, Matara did not easily succumb to external influences. While much of the region had been Christianised following Emperor Ezana’s conversion in the 4th century AD, Matara remained staunchly pagan until the 6th century. Any authority it ceded to regional powers like Adulis and Aksum between the 2nd and 6th centuries AD was minimal, likely limited to tribute or symbolic gestures of allegiance. It was only through a military campaign by Emperor Kaleb in the 6th century that Matara was fully conquered and its population converted to Christianity. Although even that, as we will see later didn’t stop the inhabitants from rebelling a second time.
The Hawulti Monument
Left: Front Side Of The Hawulti Monument, Featuring Moon and Crescent at The Top And Inscription In The Middle. Right: Backside Of The Monument
Hawulti originates from the tigrinya word ሓወልቲ, meaning stele/statue.
The Hawulti Monument, standing at an impressive 5 metres tall, is one of the earliest monumental Ge’ez inscriptions in history, dating to approximately the 3rd century AD4. At the very top, a circle represents the sun god Shams, while the crescent below symbolises Sin, the moon god and the chief god (locally known as Almaqah)5. These two symbols are found throughout Eritrea, Northern Ethiopia & Southern Arabian regions at this time.
Proto Ge’ez Inscription At The Center Of The Hawulti Monument. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, Figure 4b
While earlier Ge’ez inscriptions do exist (for example those found on pottery fragments at Matara or Emperor GDRT’s Sceptre), they typically consist of only one or two words rather than full multi-word sentences.
Most importantly, at the centre of the stela, there is one of the earliest—if not the earliest— multi-sentence Ge’ez inscriptions. The inscription reads as follows:
Ge’ez Inscription Vocalized By Littman. Source: The Obelisk of Maṭara, pg 28
“ This is the stele that made
A’ GZ for his ancestors.
transported his friends, W
'LF as well as SBL. "
- Recueil des inscriptions de 1'Ethiopie of the period pre-axoumite et axoumite, pg 320
Interestingly, another stela dating to the same period as the Hawulti Monument was recently discovered in Werie Leke, Tigray. This inscription also mentions AGZ, but in this context, AGZ is identified as the son of a king named HRF6. Therefore AGZ might have been a prince, who later became a king.
Though its exact meaning remains uncertain, some historians and archaeologists, such as Francis Anfray, propose that it was erected by AGZ in honour of his ancestors and that “W’LF” and “SBL” are references to his friends7. However, Edward Ullendorff, suggests that “W’LF” may refer to a church at Guna-Guna, historically known as Aw’a ‘Ilfi, while “SBL” might reference a medieval church at Baraknaha called Subli8 (he was told this by a local decon).
As we will see later Baraknaha is also mentioned in a manuscript named Gedle Sadaqan…
I personally believe the Hawulti Monument was consecrated by a king named AGZ, while “W’LF” and “SBL” likely refer to his close allies or friends (other nobility). Names like these often served multiple purposes—they were not only names of Important Figures/Royalty but also might have progressed over time to being associated with specific clans that inhabited towns & villages. As Christianity spread, churches built in these areas were later named after the local clans, preserving ancestral connections.
The Gaze is just one tribe/clan mentioned during this time period, the Bäläw Käläw of mixed Beja & Arab origin are also claimed to have encompassed the region around modern-day Akele-Huzay & Agame, Tigray area at the time9.In-fact to this day, Matara is known as Bäläw Käläw by the locals10.
We don't know which specific "tribe" inhabited the region; most likely, it was a mix of different clans. Just like how today, we have both the Saho & Kebessa that live within Akele Guzay.
The consecration of the Hawulti Monument marked a new era for the city-state of Matara. Around this time, large stone palaces were also constructed for the local elite, possibly including King AGZ.
Architecture
Royal Palaces
Archeological Map Of Matara. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, pg 20. Right: Is a colored satellite image from Skip D's blog
Several large stone palaces have been discovered at Matara, mainly in the western section, distinctly separated from the commoners' area. These palaces were enclosed by walls and featured multiple rooms, a central structure for housing the royalty, and a courtyard.
Structure B - Measuring 2,500 square metres. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, pg 22
For example, a palace structure (structure B on the map) measuring approximately 2,500 square meters (50.50m × 49.00m) was discovered at Matara. At its core was a central square building measuring 17.50m on each side, accessible via two staircases located on the north and east. Surrounding this central structure was a courtyard
The remains of two other palaces were also found, but only of the central structure, the courtyard and outer walls/rooms weren’t uncovered.
Walls Of Structure A. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, Figure 7
Structure A – Central Building measuring 12.60x11m was uncovered with a large staircase entry. In one of the rooms at this building, skeletal remains were found, with iron rings, likely a dungeon used for punishment11. This building might have served for military purposes.
Stairs into the central building at Structure A. Source
Plan of Structure A. Source: Première campagne de fouilles à Maṭarā (Nov. 1959- Janv. 1960), Planche LXI
Structure C – A Central Building measuring 15.20m on all sides was also discovered.
Wall Of Structure C. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, Figure 11
Houses - Commoners
Structure E1 & E2. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, zoomed in from Figure 6.
One of the most distinctive aspects of Matara is its evidence of domestic habitation. At Matara a unique layout of commoner houses is seen (E1 & E2 on the map), several dozens of stone houses adjoined side by side, in the north (E2) these houses have a central pathway leading to the outside and are all similar in structure, that is made from locally quarried stone.
Left: Walls Of The Commoner Houses, Right: Streets That Commoners Used To Walk On
To the south (E1), there are four stone structures. The largest, located to the north, features an adjoining courtyard, whereas the other three do not. While these structures offer more spacious interiors compared to the commoners’s houses up north, they are still smaller than the previously mentioned palaces. They were likely owned by wealthier commoners, such as merchants.
A Gebeta table and a dice set, used for playing this game, were also discovered at Matara. This ancient game was played worldwide and likely served as a popular pastime for the inhabitants.
Gebeta Table & Dice Found At Matara
Late Antiquity (400AD-700AD)
War With The Aksumite Empire
The Gedle Sadaqan - Acts Of The Righteous
The Northern Eritrean & Ethiopian Region During The 6th Century AD, Adapted & Translated By Me. Source: Gädlä ṣadkān: an Ethiopic text of the first Syriac boskoi-missionaries in Late Antique Axum, pg 522
Archaeological remains, however, are not the only source of insight into Matara. Interestingly, the Gedle Sadqan—a traditional manuscript recounting the story of Christian missionaries in the 6th century AD who preached across mainly Akele Guzay —mentions that the native inhabitants of Matara, who were likely pagans, attacked the monks who had migrated to the region. This led to an invasion by the Aksumite Empire, led by Emperor Kaleb, who subsequently destroyed the city & killed the locals. Notably, crosses have been found at Matara, including those inscribed on pottery, in addition to a church, all dating to the late antiquity period, providing further credibility to this conflict occurring (This will be discussed later).
The Gedle Sadaqan - Acts of the Righteous, written in the medieval era (likely finalized in the 17th century12, but containing parts written in earlier centuries) tells the story of a group of around 150 anti-Chalcedonian monks from the Levant region (Syriac) that escaped increased prosecution for their religious stances in the eastern roman empire, they travelled into the region of modern-day southern Eritrea & northern Ethiopia in the late 5th and early 6th century AD, specifically, they settled at Matara, Baraknaha, Soyre, Add Heyaw and other smaller towns and villages around the area.
They differ from the Nine Saints (another group of religious figures that travelled into the region at the time), in that the Nine Saints were primarily focused on converting the populace, and to achieve this aim they established a tight connection with the primary power at the time - The Aksumite Empire. The Sadaqan however primarily focused on escaping persecution and being allowed to practice their faith, they had less of an interest in converting the populace.
The following is an excerpt from the Gedle Sadaqan:
“When once again the inhabitants of Bur rebelled, And forgot the Lord,
By the prayer of the saints, God raised up Kaleb, King of Aksum,
And He opened the depths of the earth, And from its depths, He brought forth His army
The king sent his armies to Aksum, And led them into the land called Matara, Spreading throughout its entire expanse, With cavalry and provisions.
The king set up his throne in the midst of that land, But the inhabitants, hardened in heart, murmured, saying:
"Why is this happening?"
They grumbled, And so the royal armies departed, Pillaged the region, And killed all the inhabitants, Sparing no one.
To this day, That place remains desolate” - Source: Gädlä ṣadkān: an Ethiopic text of the first Syriac boskoi-missionaries in Late Antique Axum. Pg 530&531
The people of Matara likely resisted fiercely, refusing to surrender, as suggested by the phrases, "Hardened in heart, murmured, saying, 'Why is this happening?, they grumbled'" In response, Emperor Kaleb’s forces waged a ruthless campaign, ultimately destroying the city. This may have marked the beginning of Matara’s decline.
“Once Again…” → This “rebellion” was a re-occurring theme, this wasn’t the first time.
So, why did the native inhabitants of Matara attack these monks? While the Sadaqan largely kept to themselves, praying in caves, they still needed food for sustenance. The text mentions that they did not eat meat but survived on "grass," likely referring to local vegetation cultivated by the inhabitants of Matara and the towns & villages nearby. As monks devoted to God and scripture, they had little to offer in trade. Consequently, as the text states, they resorted to stealing vegetation from the locals, which likely led to conflict…
“But let us return to our story.
While that man was hiding, The saints entered the field of the village called Tsiʕat-Manna, They came in, and began to eat the grass.
And then, that man drew his quiver, Took out an arrow, Pulled back his bow, And struck one of them.
They spread their wings and soared like birds, Returning to their solitude, Enduring oppression, great hunger, and thirst,” - Source: Gädlä ṣadkān: an Ethiopic text of the first Syriac boskoi-missionaries in Late Antique Axum. Pg531
Ancient Monastery Near Matara, Eritrea. It’s said some of the Sadaqan hid here. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mytripsmypics/9209165434/in/photostream/
The inhabitants of Matara and its surrounding areas harboured deep resentment, particularly after Emperor Kaleb’s campaign, which left the city in ruins. As the Sadaqan continued to take resources from the locals, tensions escalated, eventually leading to one of the monks being murdered while attempting to steal vegetation. This was not an isolated incident—another mention of monks being killed at a town named Baraknaha (southeast of Matara) appears later in the text13. Eventually, due to relentless persecution by the locals and increasing difficulty in obtaining food, all the Sadaqan perished.
Beyond highlighting the resistance of Matara’s inhabitants to foreign religious influences, this also highlights the will of the inhabitants for religious independence. Even after Emperor Kaleb’s forces sacked their city, they refused to submit to his request (stopping the prosecution of the Sadaqan). Nevertheless, over time, at least some of the population gradually converted to Christianity. This is supported by the Gedle, which states that Emperor Kaleb built a church there, and by archaeological evidence confirming the existence of a church at the site.
The Churches
Structure F. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea , Figure 21.
In the far northeast of Matara, a church spanning over 300 square meters (22.4m in length by 13.5m in width) was discovered14. This church featured a central nave flanked by two side naves. Notably, the baptismal basin was found largely intact.
The Baptismal Basin. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea , Figure 22
Another church (Structure D) was discovered next to Palace C, covering over 1,000 square meters (39m in length × 26m in width)15. This church was likely used for the burial of an important religious figure(s), as an underground vault was found at the centre of the building, accessible via 14 descending steps.
Structure D. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea , Figure 15
This church might have later buried an important religious figure, maybe even one of the Sadaqan, as multiple artifacts of Roman origin were found here, such as the byzantine golden cross below & a glass cup with a moulded face.
Glass Cup With A Moulded Face. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea , Figure 48
Interestingly, within one of the rooms of this church, various Christian artifacts were uncovered, including several Roman coins from the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161 AD), golden crosses, gold necklaces featuring the cross symbol, and bracelets.
Christian Artifacts & Roman Gold Coins Found At The Church. Source: Matara: the Archaeological Investigation of a City of Ancient Eritrea, Figure 17
Artifacts
Numerous artifacts have been discovered at Matara, one of the most significant of any archaeological site in the region for its time period. Among these finds is a remarkable bronze lamp depicting an ibex being hunted by a dog—a motif commonly found in southern Arabia. The ibex was the most frequently represented animal in southern Arabia during early antiquity, and its hunting was considered a religious ritual. It remains the national animal of Oman, Qatar, and the UAE. Other notable discoveries include miniature statues depicting women, a uniquely bird-shaped vase, and several bowls dating to late antiquity adorned with Christian iconography.
1: Female Figurines 2: Bronze Lamp, 3: Vase In Shape Of A Bird 4: Dice 5: Glass Goblet, 5: Bowl Adorned With Christain Crosses:
Matara Today
Left: Kidane Mehret Church (Covenant Of Mercy), BellTower, Woden Windows At The Church. Source: Ric Lafforgue On Flickr
While all that remains of this ancient city are stone ruins, the nearby village of Matara endures, preserving echoes of its millennia-old heritage in both its architecture and people. One notable example is the Church of Kidane Mehret, constructed using the “monkey-head” technique, where timber is interlaced with stone, and wooden frames support doors and windows (an architectural style that was also used during Matara’s antiquity). Although this church dates to the early medieval period (16th century16), it likely reflects the construction methods of earlier structures in Matara. The nearby bell tower, built from tightly fitted stone, offers yet another glimpse into the region’s ancient past.
A Stone House (Hidmo) At Matara, The Inside Of The Hidmo. Source: https://www.thecandytrail.com/matara-eritrea/
The houses at Matara are still constructed from stone, with interiors supported by timber beams, following the traditional Hidmo architectural style. Undoubtedly, the homes of Matara millennia ago bore a similar appearance, and its people were just as hospitable.
