Emperor Kaleb & The First Crusade (~500AD-~535AD)
Emperor Kaleb led a crusade against the Jewish Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas to halt the massacre of over 10,000 Christians, subsequently becoming venerated as Saint Elesbaan.
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Table Of Contents
Introduction
Aksumite Geo-Political Situation - Beginning Of Kaleb’s Reign
Control Of Barbaria
Control Of The Beja
Emperor Kaleb - Early Reign
Rebellion In Matara
Kalebs First Expedition To South Arabia
The Himyarite Rebellion
The Massacre at Zafar
The Expedition to Najran
The Deceits
The Uncovering of the Deception
The Siege of Najran
Dhu Nuwas' Rebellion and Its Aftermath
Eastern Roman Empire's Involvement
Response of the Coptic Patriarch
Emperor Kalebs’s Invasion
Aksumite Preparations in Adulis
Emperor Kaleb's Visit to Abba Pantelewon
Emperor Kaleb’s Army
The Invasion
Emperor Kaleb's Campaigns in South Arabia
Guerrilla Warfare & Final Victory
Conclusion
Additional Readings
Introduction
Emperor Kaleb (also known as Ellsebaas or Hellesthaeos in Greek sources), or Ella Asbeha indigenously, ascended to the throne around 510 AD, succeeding his father Tazena. During his reign, he would crush rebellions throughout his empire, with the most infamous being the Himyarite rebellion by King Dhu Nuwas.
Before Emperor Kaleb's ascension to the throne, his father Tazena, also known as Ousanas II, Ousas, or Ousanas, ruled from the late 5th century to the early 6th century AD (circa 480 AD - 510 AD)1. Unfortunately, not much is known about Tazena's reign. However, historian Sergew Hable Selassie mentions a manuscript referencing Tazena and an expedition to South Arabia2. Although the manuscript refers to the destination as "India," scholars believe this likely means South Arabia. During that time, "India" was an interchangeable term used to identify regions in southern Arabia, the Ethiopian highlands, and India itself.
An expedition to South Arabia prior to Emperor Kaleb's rule is plausible. As explored in other articles, the Aksumites were heavily involved in the geopolitical affairs of South Arabia, particularly in the 3rd century AD during the reign of GDRT and his predecessors. Furthermore, coins referencing Ousas (Tazena) have been found in Al-Madhariba (near Aden, a port in South Yemen), supporting the notion of Aksumite presence in the region3.
Aksumite Geo-Political Situation - Beginning Of Kaleb’s Reign
During the reign of Emperor Kaleb, the Aksumite Empire extended from the Beja territories in the north (modern-day eastern Sudan, near Suakin and further north) to Barbaria in the south (modern-day Somaliland). This expansive reach is supported by the writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes, a 6th-century merchant and explorer who visited Adulis and documented the geopolitical landscape of the time. Further evidence comes from an inscription attributed to Emperor Kaleb, which explicitly lists the territories under his sovereignty. The inscription reads as follows:
"By the help of the Holy Trinity, the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, I, Caleb Ella Asbeha, son of Tazéna ... king of Aksum and of Hasu (Kasu), and of Raydan, and of Saba, and of Salhen, and of Tiamo, and of the Yemenites, and of Tihamat, and of ... all, and of Rabam(?) and of Bega, and of Noba and of ... and of the Arabites." - Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 124
From this inscription, we can discern that Emperor Kaleb asserted his rule over several regions and peoples. These include the Kasu (Kushites in present-day Sudan), Raydan (a term used by Himyarite kings to denote their territory), and Saba (a historical region within the Himyarite Kingdom, where the ancient Sabaean civilization once thrived, despite being defunct by the 6th century AD). Additionally, Salhen, mentioned as the site of a palace during the reign of Aksumite King GDRT, is also included. The inscription references "Yemenites," a collective term for the various tribes inhabiting Yemen, and Tihamat, the coastal area along southern Saudi Arabia and northern Yemen. The mention of Rabam likely pertains to another Arabian tribe or region, although the exact location remains uncertain. The Bega refers to the Beja people of eastern Sudan, the Noba to the Nubians of central Sudan, and the Arabites as a general term for the tribes of central Arabia.
Control Of Barbaria
However, the grand claims made by Emperor Kaleb alone do not constitute conclusive evidence, as such proclamations could easily be exaggerated or fabricated. Nevertheless, further corroboration comes from the writings of Cosmas Indicopleustes in his book Christian Topography, where he describes the regions under Aksumite control. Cosmas provides various excerpts detailing the areas ruled by the Aksumites, lending additional credibility to the claims of Emperor Kaleb's expansive rule. Here are some examples:
“Such is the inscription on the Chair, and at this very day in the very place where that Chair stands they execute in front of it condemned criminals; but whether this custom has prevailed from the time of Ptolemy I cannot say. I have set all this down from a desire to show that he is quite correct in taking the land of Sasu and Barbaria to lie at the extremity of Ethiopia, since he had subjugated all these regions and the tribes by which they were inhabited, most of which we ourselves have seen, while about the rest we obtained accurate information when we were in their neighbourhood. For most of the slaves which are now found in the hands of merchants who resort to these parts are taken from the tribes of which we speak. As for the Semenai, where he says there are snows and ice, it is to that country the King of the Axômites expatriates any one whom he has sentenced to be banished..” - Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography (1897) Book 2, section 144
In this excerpt, Cosmas Indicopleustes discusses the inscriptions on the Throne of Adulis, highlighting his firsthand travels to both Sasu and Barbaria. He notes that these regions are currently within the territory referred to as "Ethiopia," a term the Greeks used to describe the Aksumite Empire. Cosmas also mentions that slaves from these areas were sold by Aksumite merchants, indicating active trade between these regions & proving Kaleb had suzerainty over these lands. Additionally, he describes the Semen Mountains, which were used as a prison colony for those who had been exiled.
Control Of The Beja
“…A story goes that this king once upon a time would lay siege to an inland city of the Indians which was on every side protected by water. A long while he sat down before it, until what with his elephants, his horses and his soldiers all the water had been drunk up.He then crossed over to the city dryshod, and took it. These people set great store by the emerald stone and wear it set in a crown. The Ethiopians who procure this stone from the Blemmyes in Ethiopia take it into India and, with the price it fetches, they invest in wares of great value” - - Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography (1897) Book 6, section 339
In this excerpt, Cosmas Indicopleustes describes how emerald stones were procured from mines in the Beja regions by the Aksumites and subsequently traded with Indians, who prized them for their beauty and used them in their crowns. This account provides evidence that the Beja territories were under Aksumite dominion during the reign of Emperor Kaleb.
Regarding the territories in Southern Arabia, as mentioned earlier in the article, Emperor Kaleb's father, Tazena, had previously waged war in the region, likely re-conquering these lands. Later on in the article we will cover the reign of Dhu Nuwas, which confirms Aksumite's control over Himyar and Najran during this period.
Emperor Kaleb - Early Reign
Rebellion In Matara
Early in Kaleb's reign, he undertook a significant expedition against the Belew Kelew, a subgroup of the Beja people who inhabited parts of what is now Eritrea, with Matara being a crucial city, possibly their capital4.
Historian Sergew Hable Selassie states, that in the manuscript Gedle Sadqan, insights into the Belew Kelew are provided. This manuscript details the history of the Sadqan, Orthodox missionaries from Rome, distinct from the Nine Saints of Rome mentioned in previous articles. It describes the Belew Kelew as an independent nation during Kaleb's early reign, possessing their own political system, stone houses, and a standing army. However, they had not yet converted to Christianity. The Sadqan attempted to evangelize in the region, but their efforts were met with resistance, leading to the massacre of many missionaries. This prompted Emperor Kaleb to intervene militarily to address the situation.
Matara is an ancient archaeological site with numerous Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite ruins. It is intriguing that Matara is mentioned as an independent nation during this period. Another noteworthy point is that the conversion to Christianity was not universally accepted throughout the Aksumite region, particularly among non-Habesha tribes.
Kalebs First Expedition To South Arabia
Before the infamous crusade in 525 AD, another significant invasion occurred around 518 AD when Emperor Kaleb and his Aksumite forces, led by General Hayyan, launched an expedition into Himyar. The purpose of this invasion was to reinstate Aksumite suzerainty, which might have collapsed between the reigns of Ousanas and Kaleb, possibly due to a rebellion. This invasion was successful and resulted in the installation of a puppet ruler, Ma’dikarib Ya’fur, in Himyar5. Following the victory, Kaleb ordered an inscription to be written, proclaiming:
“I built a shrine in Himyar at QN’L, zealous for the name of the Son of God, in whom I believe, and I built his Gabaz, and sanctified it by the power of God.” - The Throne OF Adulis, PG 95
The Himyarite Rebellion
Around 512/522 AD, the Himyarite puppet king Ma’dikarib Ya’fur died, leading Emperor Kaleb to crown Yusuf As’ar Yath’ar, also known as Dhu Nuwas in Arabic. However, by the autumn of 522 AD, Dhu Nuwas had rebelled and converted to Judaism6. One of his first targets was Zafar, the capital of the Himyarite kingdom and a walled city. As previously discussed, the Aksumites had maintained a presence in Zafar since the early 3rd century AD during the reign of GDRT. By the early 6th century AD, Zafar housed a significant Christian population.
Dhu Nuwas aimed to strike at the heart of Christianity and Aksumite power in the region. However, besieging Zafar proved difficult due to its strong defences and the combined Aksumite garrisons. To overcome this, Dhu Nuwas devised a deceptive plan. According to historian Sergew Hable Selassie, he sent letters to the city's inhabitants, promising no harm if they opened the gates and surrendered without a fight. To bolster his deception, he sent letters to Christian priests7.
Despite his efforts, the inhabitants and the Aksumite garrison remained wary. They dispatched a contingent of 300 men, led by the town's governor, B’BW, to Dhu Nuwas's encampment outside the city. Initially, the delegation was received with hospitality, and provided with food and drink. However, at nightfall, while they slept, they were all massacred. Tradition holds that Dhu Nuwas's soldiers each brought back a head, and Dhu Nuwas himself counted all 300 to ensure none had escaped8.
The Massacre at Zafar
After the initial massacre, Dhu Nuwas and his army proceeded to the city of Zafar. In a brutal and gruesome act, they pillaged the city and massacred its inhabitants. One particularly horrific event occurred when Dhu Nuwas' forces locked over 280 Christians in a church and set it ablaze, burning them alive9. This act was not only an attempt to eliminate the Christian population but also to instil fear and demonstrate his ruthless power.
The Expedition to Najran
Following the atrocities in Zafar, Dhu Nuwas pushed his military campaign northwards, reaching the city of Najran10. Historically, Najran had experienced fluctuating political alliances since the time of the Aksumite king GDRT, at times falling under Aksumite suzerainty, and at other times aligning with the kingdoms of Saba or Himyar. By the 6th century AD, Najran had become a significant centre of Christianity in southern Arabia. Its strategic northern location made it a frequent stop for Christians from the Mediterranean who visited and sometimes stayed in Najran.
The Deceits
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Like Zafar, Najran was well-fortified, with walls and an Aksumite garrison stationed there, making a direct siege a daunting task for Dhu Nuwas. Resorting to deceit, Dhu Nuwas sent a letter to the head priest of Najran, Harith (also known as Arethas), claiming he needed assistance against rebellious forces. Unaware of the massacre in Zafar and still believing Dhu Nuwas to be a loyal subject of Emperor Kaleb, the Aksumite forces in Najran decided to aid him11.
An anonymous greek writer speaks of Arethas in the “Martydom Of Arethas”.
The Uncovering of the Deception
As the Aksumite forces journeyed out of Najran to meet Dhu Nuwas, a passerby inquired about their destination. Upon learning of their intentions, the passerby informed them of the massacre in Zafar. Realizing the deception, the Aksumite forces immediately returned to Najran12.
The Siege of Najran
Frustrated by his failed deceit, Dhu Nuwas laid siege to Najran. The siege resulted in significant destruction of the land surrounding the city. As a final tactic, Dhu Nuwas sent a letter to the city's inhabitants, offering forgiveness to all who had rebelled if they surrendered. He threatened complete genocide and total destruction if they refused.
The inhabitants of Najran, desperate to avoid further bloodshed, sent a delegation of around 150 people to negotiate with Dhu Nuwas. Upon reaching his camp, the delegation was forced to renounce their Christian faith. When they refused, they were all killed13.
Possibly due to confusion regarding the fate of the delegation, Dhu Nuwas' army managed to enter the city. However, it quickly became apparent that no agreement had been reached. Dhu Nuwas' forces massacred the inhabitants of Najran and burned their churches to the ground, continuing their campaign of terror and religious persecution14.
Dhu Nuwas' Rebellion and Its Aftermath
Following Dhu Nuwas' successful rebellion throughout southern Arabia, approximately 12,500 to 14,000 people were killed, and over 10,000 were captured15. Dhu Nuwas' forces carried out widespread persecution, particularly targeting Christian communities. As news of these events spread, it reached the Aksumite capital, Aksum, through various sources.
One notable source was Daur Dhu Thalaban, who had escaped persecution in Narjan. He presented himself at the Aksumite court, bringing with him a harrowing story of the atrocities committed by Dhu Nuwas. To corroborate his account, he also brought a half-burnt copy of the Bible as evidence. Daur Dhu Thalaban appealed to the Aksumite court for assistance and justice against Dhu Nuwas' crimes16.
In anticipation of an Aksumite invasion, Dhu Nuwas stationed his army near the coast, ready to defend against any incursions.
Eastern Roman Empire's Involvement
Emperor Justin I, the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire and the founder of the Justinian dynasty learned of the persecution of Christians in southern Arabia. The news of these atrocities greatly angered him. Justin, I decided to take action and sent a letter to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria, Timothy III. In his letter, Justin I detailed the horrific events and urged Timothy III to communicate this information to Emperor Kaleb of Aksum, urging him to seek justice for the persecuted Christians and even offering to send a contingent of Roman troops to aid him in the journey17.
Response of the Coptic Patriarch
Timothy III responded promptly by dispatching twelve priests to the Aksumite court. These priests carried Justin I's letter to Emperor Kaleb. However, upon their arrival, they discovered that Emperor Kaleb was already well-informed about the situation. He had already started mobilizing a larger army and overseeing the construction of ships at the port of Adulis, in preparation to address the crisis in southern Arabia.
Emperor Justin I’s letter to Emperor Kaleb is as follows:
"I know how devoted you are to Christianity. That rebel to whom you entrusted the kingdom of Himyar has taken the opportunity to put to the sword all the Ethiopian Christians you have sent as well as Romans and Persians because they refused to deny that Jesus Christ was the Son of God. He made Najran an uninhabitable wasteland. He then wrote to the Persian king and Alamundarus Sacchicas, asking them to do similar things to Christians there. We encourage and adjure you, by the holy and consubstantial Trinity, to attack the execrable and impious Jew by land and sea, taking with you the power of the holy angels as assistance. If you hesitate to do this, you and your state will incur the wrath of God. We will send a large army of Blemmyes through Coptos and Berenice and nomads, who will march through your country, ravaging it and bringing ruin and destruction to the Himyarites. Greetings." - Martyrs of Najran by Anthony Alcock, Chapter 6, Paragraph 27.
The final sentences not only serve as a veiled threat but also highlight the persistent challenges the Beja posed to the Aksumites. This ominously foreshadows the eventual decline of the Aksumite Empire centuries later, partly due to the Beja invasions from the north. These invasions allowed the Beja to gain control over large portions of what is now modern-day Eritrea, contributing significantly to the empire’s downfall.
Emperor Kalebs’s Invasion
Aksumite Preparations in Adulis
Before the invasion, Emperor Kaleb gave specific instructions to the governor of Adulis to inscribe historic records on the Throne of Adulis and the Stele situated behind it. These inscriptions were meant to recount the battles and invasions of Kaleb's predecessors, serving as a source of inspiration. Cosmas Indicopleustes, a 6th-century merchant & traveller, was tasked with inscribing both monuments, with the help of his assistant Menas.
“Elesbaan, who was then King of the Axomites, and was preparing to start on an expedition against the Homerites on the opposite side of the Gulf wrote to the Governor the Adule directing him to take copies of the inscriptions on the Chair of Ptolemy and on the tablet, and to send them to him. Then the Governor, whose name was Abbas, applied to myself and another merchant called Menas, who afterwards became a monk at Rhaithu, and not long ago departed this life — and at his request we went and copied the inscriptions. One set of the copies was made over to the Governor; but we kept also like copies for ourselves which I shall here embody in this work, since their contents contribute to our knowledge of the country, its inhabitants” - Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography (1897) pp. 23-90. Book 2, section 142 & 143
The Throne & The Stele were covered in detail in previous articles.
Emperor Kaleb's Visit to Abba Pantelewon
Before setting sail for the invasion, Emperor Kaleb visited Abba Pantelewon in his monastery. During this visit, Abba Pantelewon provided Emperor Kaleb with valuable advice and prayers, further strengthening his resolve for the upcoming campaign18. Specifically, the interaction went as follows:
“In the Ethiopian city of Saba there was a Roman of the city of Aela, a most holy monk, strict ascetic and prophet named Zonenus. The king, wearing plebeian clothes and accompanied by five men, went to question him in the name of God. He had lived for forty years in a small tower, with no door or window, two cubits wide and and, like the building itself, five cubits high. There was a small opening at the base of the tower through which his words could be heard. The king brought seven censers, each one with ten denarii in the upper part and said: "Bless me, father, and pray to God that he may guide us in life and work with us." The servant of God replied: "May the one who rules with you be with you. Remove deceit and it will be removed from you." The king said to the old man: "Who am I, father ?" The old man replied: "Do not try to question me." The king understood that he was speaking because of the gold.76 The old man said: "The prayer of Timothy of Alexandria and the tears of Justin as well as the sacrifice of the fragrance of the martyrs have gone up to heaven to the spiritual altar." - Martyrs of Najran by Anthony Alcock, Chapter 7, Paragraph 31.
Abba Pantelewon was one of the Nine Saints previously discussed
Emperor Kaleb’s Army
Emperor Kaleb had ordered 60-70 large ships and over 100 small ships to be built at Adulis for the upcoming crusade. These ships were modelled after those from India, fifteen from Elath in the Gulf of Aqaba, twenty from Clysma in the Gulf of Suez, seven from Iotabe, an island off Tiran (an Island Between Egypt and Saudia Arabia in the Sinai Peninsula), two from Berenice, seven from Pharasan in Persia, and nine from India. These ships, which were originally for commercial purposes, were repurposed to transport his army to Himyar19. He embarked on the journey from the port of Gabaza, near the port city of Adulis. In total, his fleet comprised over 200 ships. His army totalled around 120,000 soldiers20. Before the main expedition, a smaller army of 15,000 soldiers was set to sail and land in Saba in the south. However, this expedition failed, and most of the soldiers perished21.
The Invasion
To prepare for the imminent invasion by sea, Dhu Nuwas blocked port entrances with chains and stationed his army along the coast. Emperor Kaleb's ships arrived at the coast near Mokha (modern-day Mocha in Yemen), the main port of Dhu Nuwas' South Arabia at the time. However, they couldn’t land immediately. Emperor Kaleb managed a smaller section of his army and went with 12 ships separately further north, successfully landing. With Dhu Nuwas now under the threat of two attacks from the split Aksumite army, he repositioned his forces back to the mountains and away from the coast22.
Emperor Kaleb reached Zafar and besieged the city, successfully capturing it and appointing Sumuyafa Ashwa as the king of South Arabia. Sumuyafa Ashwa was Himyarite by birth but Christian and a descendant of a local prince. Before his departure from South Arabia Klaeb ordered for a large inscription to be placed, which celebrated his war23.
According to South Arabian tradition, the Aksumites seized several key cities following their victory. These included:
The capital city of Zafar
The cities of San’a and Marib
Two cities in the Jawf region (North Yemen, in modern-day: Al Jawf Governorate of Yemen)
The city of Narjan
Persecution Of Himyarites
During the invasion of Himyar, many Jewish inhabitants were killed, and their homes were looted and destroyed. However, The Book of the Himyarites, a text written by Syrian Orthodox priests that chronicles the massacre of Christians in Himyar and Emperor Kaleb’s subsequent invasion, includes a fascinating account of how some Jewish Himyarites managed to avoid persecution. According to the text, they tattooed the Christian symbol of the cross on their hands, a gesture Emperor Kaleb interpreted as a sign of repentance. The inscription from this account reads as follows:
“But when [some of] the Himyaritic Christians saw that [all men] of [the Himya]rites were destroyed who were found, and were not [able] to say to the Abyssinians in their language: "We are Christians," those Christians found out [an artifice], and tattooed [on their hands] the sign of the Cross, and [this artifice] they... each other. [And these signs] they showed [to the Abyssinians] who had gone out destroying, [and when] the Abyssinians [saw these signs on their hands] they did them no harm.
When this artifice which these Himyarites [had prepared] against the Abyssinians by this sign, [came to the knowledge] of the Christ-loving King Kaleb, this king [was confounded] and stupefied and greatly [astonished] that in such a [way] they took refuge in [the victorious Cross], and he said [within] himself that perhaps these were not even... but had [denied] Him, still they had [escaped] from the massacre of the Jews and were delivered. But even if it [should be] that they were of those who had [denied], because of this that the memory of the Cross was in their souls, those [who] had done so should be purified and live. And therefore he ordered and [set forth] a command to all his troops [that wheresoever] anyone of [them] saw the sign of the [victorious] Cross [on the hand of] a man, he should not [be slain]. When now this [command] was heard and spread through [all the land of the Himyarites]... [But when the Jews saw] that [some] of the Christians, who had made this sign of the Cross on their hands thereby had escaped from the slaughter by the Abyssinians, they also yielded, and did even as they, [tattooing] the symbol of the Cross [on] their [hands], and escaping from death.” - The book of the Himyarites: fragments of a hitherto unknown Syriac work. (Lund : C.W.K. Gleerup, 1924), Chapters 43, 44 Pg 137
Emperor Kaleb's Campaigns in South Arabia
Guerrilla Warfare & Final Victory
Following his initial victory, Dhu Nuwas retreated to the mountains, engaging in guerrilla warfare against the Ethiopian garrisons. These tactics led Emperor Kaleb to prepare for another military expedition in 525 AD. Kaleb's forces landed in South Arabia once more, surrounding Dhu Nuwas from both the coastal Aksumite forces and the garrisons stationed inland. Faced with this overwhelming opposition, Dhu Nuwas fled and ultimately committed suicide, tradition states by drowning in the sea24.
Finally, Kaleb appointed General Abreha, who had successfully led the second invasion of Himyar and had helped defeat Dhu Nuwas, as commander of the Aksumite Garrison in Himyar.
Conclusion
Emperor Kaleb’s invasion of Himyar marked the pinnacle of the Aksumite Empire and signalled the beginning of its later stages. This campaign showcased the full extent of Aksumite military power, including the ability to field over 100,000 soldiers and deploy more than 200 ships, demonstrating both formidable ground forces and naval capabilities. The invasion also underscored the central role of Christianity in the empire, reflecting the religious fervour that had grown since the reign of Ezana. This culminated in what can be described as a holy crusade against the Jewish King Dhu Nuwas, who had brutally massacred Christians in his territory.
Furthermore, this episode introduces us to Abreha, a general who played a key role in the Aksumite campaign against Himyar. Now promoted to commander of the large Aksumite garrison stationed in Himyar, Abreha dreamt of even more power which would eventually bring him into conflict with the Emperor himself.
Additional Readings
Martyrs of Najran by Anthony Alcock: Provides a translation of a primary source detailing the events in Himyar during the reign of Dhu Nuwas and the Aksumite Invasion that proceeded.
The book of the Himyarites: fragments of a hitherto unknown Syriac work. (Lund : C.W.K. Gleerup, 1924) - Provides another translation, this time by Syrian monks of the events that occurred during Emperor Kaleb’s reign.
In Modern Day Yemen, at Marib we find an inscription by Emperor Kaleb proclaiming victory25:
“Now they have horses and chariots, while we will be great by the name of God our Lord; they have stumbled and fallen but we have risen . . . .” - Emperor Kaleb
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 123
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 123
African Zion : The Sacred Art of Ethiopia, pg 111
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 125
The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 95
Arabs and Empires Before Islam, pg 147.
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 128
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 128
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 129
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 130
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 131
The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 97
Martyrs of Najran by Anthony Alcock, Chapter 7, Paragraph 31
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 132
The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 97
The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 97
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 133
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 133
Ancient And Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270, pg 135
The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam, pg 102